How to Grow Milkweed from Seed: Cold Stratification & Fall Planting Guide

How to Grow Milkweed from Seed: Cold Stratification and Step-by-Step Germination Guide

Growing milkweed from seed is one of the most affordable ways to create a butterfly-friendly garden. Instead of purchasing several mature plants from a nursery, you can raise your own seedlings and gradually build a collection of milkweed plants in pots, balcony containers or garden beds.

Milkweed belongs to the genus Asclepias and is an important host plant for several butterfly species. In North America, it is particularly well known for supporting Monarch butterfly caterpillars. In India, tropical milkweed (Asclepias curassavica) is visited by butterflies such as the Plain Tiger and Striped Tiger, whose caterpillars feed on its leaves.

However, growing milkweed from seed is not always as simple as scattering seeds over potting soil. Some species germinate readily in warm conditions, while others have seed dormancy that can be reduced through a period of cold, moist treatment called cold stratification.

This is where many beginners make mistakes. They either refrigerate seeds that do not need cold treatment or sow dormant seeds directly into warm soil and become disappointed when very few seedlings appear.

The most important step is to identify your milkweed species before choosing a germination method.

This guide explains how to prepare milkweed seeds, when cold stratification is useful, how to sow seeds indoors or outdoors, and how to raise healthy seedlings without damaging their developing roots. It also includes practical guidance for gardeners in India and colder regions of the United States.

Milkweed Seed Germination: Quick Overview

Growing Factor	Recommended Guidance
Botanical name	Asclepias species
Common varieties	Tropical Milkweed, Butterfly Weed, Swamp Milkweed and Common Milkweed
Seed preparation	Remove loose seed fluff and discard damaged seeds
Cold stratification	Depends on species and seed batch
Refrigerator temperature	Approximately 1–5°C (34–41°F)
General starting period	Around 30 days for many native species, but some need longer or less
Germination temperature	Often around 20–26°C (68–79°F), depending on species
Sowing depth	Cover lightly, generally around 3–6 mm
Germination time	Often 1–3 weeks under suitable conditions, but can vary
Suitable containers	Deep seed-starting pots or individual cups with drainage
Best transplanting stage	When seedlings are established but before roots become crowded
Important precaution	Avoid disturbing the developing taproot

Important: These are general starting guidelines, not universal rules. Milkweed species, seed origin, storage conditions and seed freshness can all affect germination.

Step 1: Identify Your Milkweed Seeds Before Planting

Before soaking your seeds or putting them inside a refrigerator, check the botanical name on the seed packet.

Not all milkweed species have the same germination requirements. Some seeds may germinate without cold treatment, while others benefit from several weeks of cold, moist stratification.

Research has also found that dormancy can vary between different populations of the same milkweed species. Therefore, a treatment that works well for one packet may not produce identical results with another.

Milkweed Varieties and Their Germination Requirements

Milkweed Variety	Botanical Name	Cold Stratification Guidance	Suitable Approach
Tropical or Scarlet Milkweed	Asclepias curassavica	Usually not required	Sow directly in warm conditions
Butterfly Weed	Asclepias tuberosa	May improve germination in dormant seed batches	Try cold stratification if germination is poor
Swamp Milkweed	Asclepias incarnata	Often beneficial; requirements vary	Start with approximately 30 days
Common Milkweed	Asclepias syriaca	Beneficial for some seed batches	Try 30–60 days when dormancy is suspected
Showy Milkweed	Asclepias speciosa	Varies between populations	A 2–6-week treatment may help some batches

The table provides practical starting points rather than guaranteed requirements. Published research has documented considerable variation in dormancy and cold-treatment responses among milkweed species and seed populations.

Which Milkweed Should You Grow in India?

For most Indian home gardeners, Tropical Milkweed (Asclepias curassavica) is a practical starting choice.

It grows well in warm conditions, produces attractive red and yellow flower clusters and can be raised from seed without the cold-stratification process generally used for some temperate milkweeds.

You may also encounter Giant Milkweed, known locally as Akanda or Madar. Its botanical name is Calotropis gigantea. Although it belongs to the same plant family as Asclepias, it is a different genus and should not be treated as an identical milkweed species.

For Calotropis gigantea, fresh seeds are generally sown directly in warm, well-drained growing medium.

Beginner tip: If your seed packet does not mention the botanical name, ask the seller before choosing a germination method. A common name alone may not be enough to identify the correct treatment.

Step 2: Prepare Milkweed Seeds Before Sowing

Milkweed seeds are usually flat, brown and attached to soft white fibres when they mature inside their pods.

These silky fibres are called floss or coma. They help the seeds travel through the air when the pods open naturally.

You can remove most of the loose fibres before sowing. However, the seeds do not need to be perfectly cleaned to germinate.

How to Separate Milkweed Seeds from Their Floss

If you have collected seeds from mature pods, follow these steps:

Wait until the seed pods become dry and begin to split naturally.
Collect the seeds before strong winds scatter them.
Gently separate the brown seeds from the white fibres.
Remove empty, damaged or visibly mouldy seeds.
Store the cleaned seeds in a labelled paper envelope if you are not planting them immediately.

A simple separation method: Place a small quantity of dry seed floss inside a paper bag and gently shake it. The seeds and lighter fibres will separate to some extent, making hand cleaning easier.

Avoid crushing or aggressively rubbing the seeds because damaged seeds may fail to germinate.

Should You Soak Milkweed Seeds Before Planting?

Seed soaking is not essential for every milkweed species.

For Tropical Milkweed and Giant Milkweed, a short soak in room-temperature or slightly lukewarm water can help rehydrate dry seeds before sowing.

If you want to try soaking:

Place the seeds in a clean bowl.
Add room-temperature water.
Leave them for approximately 8–12 hours.
Drain the water and sow the seeds promptly.

Do not leave seeds soaking for several days. Prolonged soaking can reduce oxygen availability and encourage seed deterioration.

For native North American milkweed species, soaking alone should not be considered a replacement for cold stratification when the seed batch has dormancy.

Step 3: How to Cold Stratify Milkweed Seeds in the Refrigerator

Cold stratification is a process that exposes seeds to cool, moist conditions for a particular period.

In nature, many seeds experience winter conditions before they germinate during warmer weather. Refrigerator stratification imitates part of this natural seasonal process.

It is especially useful when growing native milkweed species whose seeds have a dormancy requirement.

What You Need

Milkweed seeds
A clean paper towel or coffee filter
A resealable plastic bag
Clean water
A permanent marker
A refrigerator thermometer, if available

Step-by-Step Refrigerator Method

1. Prepare the Paper Towel

Take a clean paper towel and moisten it with water. Squeeze out the excess moisture.

The towel should feel damp, like a wrung-out sponge. It should not be dripping wet.

Too much moisture encourages mould and can damage seeds.

2. Arrange the Seeds

Spread the milkweed seeds across one half of the damp paper towel.

Keep a little space between them rather than placing all the seeds in one pile.

Fold the other half of the towel over the seeds.

3. Place the Seeds in a Bag

Slide the folded paper towel into a clean resealable plastic bag.

Remove excessive air without crushing the seeds.

Write the following information on the bag:

Milkweed variety
Date of preparation
Recommended stratification period

Labelling is important when you are treating more than one variety.

4. Refrigerate the Seeds

Place the bag inside the main compartment of your refrigerator.

A temperature of approximately 1–5°C (34–41°F) is suitable for many cold-stratification treatments.

Do not put the seeds in the freezer.

5. Check the Seeds Regularly

Inspect the bag approximately once a week.

Look for excessive moisture, mould or early germination.

If the paper towel becomes too wet, replace it with a fresh, lightly damp towel.

If mould appears, remove visibly affected material and inspect the remaining seeds carefully. Do not assume that every mouldy seed can be saved.

6. Remove the Seeds When Treatment Is Complete

Follow the treatment period recommended for your species or seed supplier.

Approximately 30 days is a useful starting point for many native milkweeds, but some seed batches may benefit from longer treatment.

Once the treatment is complete, sow the seeds in a suitable seed-starting medium.

What If a Seed Germinates Inside the Refrigerator?

Sometimes a seed begins to develop a small white root while it is still inside the bag.

This is called early germination.

Do not leave it inside the paper towel for several more weeks.

Carefully remove the seed using clean tweezers, holding the seed body rather than pulling on the delicate root tip.

Place it into a small pot with the root pointing downward. Cover it lightly with growing medium and keep the medium moist but not waterlogged.

The developing root is fragile, so avoid unnecessary handling.

Step 4: Outdoor Winter Sowing for Cold Regions

If you live in a region with a genuine cold winter, you may not need to use a refrigerator.

Outdoor winter sowing allows seeds to experience natural seasonal conditions.

This method is particularly useful for gardeners growing native North American milkweed species.

Method A: Direct Sowing in Outdoor Pots

Choose a deep container with drainage holes.
Fill it with a suitable, well-draining potting mix.
Moisten the growing medium before sowing.
Place the seeds on the surface.
Cover them lightly with approximately 3–6 mm of growing medium.
Add a protective wire mesh if birds or rodents are likely to disturb the seeds.
Leave the container outdoors in a suitable location through winter.

Keep the container protected from severe waterlogging.

As temperatures rise in spring, the seeds may begin to germinate.

Remember that natural winter exposure does not guarantee that every seed will germinate. Results depend on the species, seed condition and local weather.

Method B: Winter Sowing in a Plastic Container

A transparent plastic container can act as a small outdoor growing chamber.

You can use a suitable translucent food container or recycled plastic jug.

Follow these steps:

Clean the container thoroughly.
Make drainage holes in the bottom.
Make ventilation openings so excess heat and moisture can escape.
Add approximately 8–10 cm of moist potting medium.
Sow the seeds and cover them lightly.
Close the container while keeping suitable ventilation.
Place it outdoors where it receives natural seasonal conditions.

Check the container occasionally.

It should not become completely dry, but it should also never remain flooded.

Once seedlings emerge, monitor the temperature and ventilation. On unusually warm days, a closed transparent container can become too hot.

Important: Outdoor winter sowing is intended for regions where the chosen milkweed species naturally experiences suitable winter conditions. It is not necessary for Tropical Milkweed grown in warm parts of India.

Step 5: Direct Sowing Milkweed Seeds in India

Gardeners in India can often skip refrigerator stratification when growing Tropical Milkweed.

The important requirements are warm growing conditions, suitable moisture and adequate sunlight after germination.

When to Sow Tropical Milkweed in India

The best sowing period depends on your local climate.

Region	Practical Sowing Period
North India	Autumn or late winter, avoiding extreme cold
West Bengal and North Bengal	Autumn through early winter, or late winter when conditions are suitable
Southern India	During a suitable mild, warm growing period
Hot and dry regions	Avoid the harshest summer heat
Very humid regions	Prefer a period with good drainage and manageable rainfall

For gardeners around Siliguri and other parts of North Bengal, October to February can be a useful starting window, depending on local temperatures.

Avoid keeping newly sown seeds in containers that receive heavy, continuous monsoon rain.

Direct Sowing Method

Choose fresh, healthy Tropical Milkweed seeds.
Prepare small pots or seed-starting cups with drainage holes.
Fill them with a light, well-draining seed-starting medium.
Moisten the medium before planting.
Place one or two seeds in each container.
Cover the seeds lightly with approximately 3–6 mm of medium.
Place the pots in a warm location with bright indirect light.
Maintain even moisture without making the soil soggy.

Once seedlings emerge, gradually introduce them to stronger sunlight.

Do not place very young seedlings immediately in intense afternoon sunlight, especially during hot weather.

Step 6: Choose the Right Seed-Starting Container

Milkweed seedlings develop roots quickly. Some species develop a noticeable taproot, which can be damaged when seedlings are pulled out of crowded trays.

That is why container selection matters.

Which Containers Work Well?

You can use:

Deep plastic nursery cups with drainage holes
Individual seed-starting pots
Coir pots
Peat pots
Reusable deep propagation containers

A container approximately 8–10 cm deep is a practical starting choice for individual seedlings.

The main objective is to give roots enough room to develop before transplanting.

Is a Biodegradable Pot Always Better?

Biodegradable pots can make transplanting easier because the seedling can be moved with less root disturbance.

However, they are not automatically the best choice in every situation.

Some peat or coir pots dry out quickly, while others may not break down fast enough after planting.

If you use biodegradable pots:

Keep the growing medium evenly moist.
Check that the container material is not restricting root growth.
Remove or open the bottom if the pot material remains firm.
Avoid burying exposed pot rims above the soil surface because they can draw moisture away from the root ball.

A deep reusable plastic cup can also work well. Simply remove the seedling carefully while keeping as much of its root system and surrounding medium intact as possible.

Prepare a Suitable Seed-Starting Mix

Milkweed seeds need a growing medium that holds some moisture but drains excess water.

A simple homemade mix is:

Ingredient	Quantity
Fine cocopeat or peat moss	50%
Perlite or coarse sand	30%
Screened, well-matured compost	20%

For very small seeds, use a fine-textured mix without large pieces of bark or stones.

Do not add large quantities of fresh manure or strong fertilizer to the seed-starting medium.

Young seedlings have limited root systems and do not need heavy feeding.

Step 7: How to Sow Milkweed Seeds Correctly

Once your seeds and containers are ready, follow a simple sowing process.

1. Moisten the Growing Medium

Fill the container with the prepared seed-starting mix.

Water it lightly so the entire medium becomes evenly moist.

Allow excess water to drain.

2. Place the Seeds

Put one or two seeds in each container.

If you are using a larger seed tray, leave enough space between seeds to make later transplanting easier.

3. Cover the Seeds Lightly

Cover them with a thin layer of growing medium, approximately 3–6 mm deep.

Avoid burying small seeds too deeply.

Some milkweed species respond differently to light during germination, so follow the instructions supplied with your particular seed variety when available.

4. Maintain Suitable Temperature

Many milkweed seeds germinate well in moderately warm conditions.

A temperature around 20–26°C (68–79°F) is a reasonable starting range for several commonly grown species, although requirements differ.

5. Maintain Consistent Moisture

Use a gentle watering can or spray bottle.

The medium should remain lightly moist, not waterlogged.

Excessive watering can cause seeds to rot before they germinate.

Step 8: Caring for Milkweed Seedlings After Germination

Under suitable conditions, you may begin seeing seedlings within one to three weeks.

Some seeds germinate sooner, while others take longer.

The first leaves that appear are called cotyledons. They are followed by true leaves, which gradually develop the characteristic shape of the milkweed variety.

1. Provide Adequate Light

Once seedlings emerge, give them bright light.

A sunny windowsill or a location receiving gentle morning sunlight can work well.

If the seedlings are growing indoors under artificial lighting, provide an appropriate grow-light schedule according to the light's strength and distance.

Watch the seedlings carefully.

If stems become unusually long, thin and weak, they may not be receiving enough light.

Gradually increase sunlight exposure rather than moving tender seedlings straight into harsh afternoon conditions.

2. Remove Excess Humidity

If you used a plastic cover during germination, remove it gradually once seedlings appear.

Good air circulation helps reduce the risk of damping-off, a fungal or fungus-like disease problem that can cause young seedlings to collapse near the soil surface.

Avoid keeping seedlings inside a sealed, humid container after they have emerged.

3. Water Carefully

Young seedlings have small root systems and can dry out quickly.

Check the growing medium regularly.

Water when the surface begins to dry, but do not allow the pots to sit in standing water.

Bottom watering is an option for small containers. Place the pots in a shallow tray of water for a short period and remove them once the growing medium has absorbed enough moisture.

Allow excess water to drain completely.

4. Avoid Strong Fertilizers

Milkweed seedlings do not need heavy feeding.

If the growing medium contains a small amount of mature compost, additional fertilizer may not be necessary during the early growth stage.

Avoid applying concentrated fertilizer to young seedlings.

Wait until plants are established before considering a light feeding appropriate for the species.

Step 9: When and How to Transplant Milkweed Seedlings

Transplanting is one of the most important stages of growing milkweed from seed.

Some milkweed varieties develop a long taproot. If the root becomes twisted, crowded or damaged during transplanting, the seedling may struggle to establish.

The aim is to move the seedling before it becomes root-bound while disturbing the roots as little as possible.

When Should You Transplant?

Do not rely only on seedling height.

Look for these signs:

The seedling has developed several true leaves.
Its stem is strong enough to handle carefully.
Roots have begun filling the container but are not tightly crowded.
The plant is growing steadily.

A small seedling with a healthy root system is often easier to transplant than an older, crowded plant.

Step-by-Step Transplanting Method

Prepare the final container before removing the seedling from its starter pot.
Fill it with a suitable, well-draining potting mix.
Water the seedling lightly before transplanting if the medium is dry.
Remove the seedling gently, keeping the root ball together.
Avoid pulling the plant by its stem.
Place it in the new container at approximately the same depth at which it was growing.
Fill the surrounding space with growing medium.
Water gently to settle the soil around the roots.

If the seedling is growing in a biodegradable pot, check whether the pot material is likely to restrict root growth. Open or remove any parts that remain firm and prevent the roots from growing outward.

Keep the newly transplanted seedling in bright, protected conditions while it adjusts.

Gradually return it to stronger sunlight.

What Size Final Pot Should You Choose?

For many commonly grown milkweed varieties, a container around 12–14 inches deep and wide is a useful starting point.

Larger or more vigorous varieties may require more space.

For specific pot sizes and soil recommendations, read our related guide:

How to Grow and Care for Milkweed (Asclepias) in Pots: Complete Balcony Guide

This companion article explains container selection, soil preparation, watering, sunlight, seasonal care and caterpillar-safe pest management.

Troubleshooting: Why Are My Milkweed Seeds Not Germinating?

Milkweed seeds sometimes take longer to germinate than expected.

Before throwing away the seed tray, check the following common problems.

Problem	Possible Cause	What to Do
No seedlings after several weeks	Seed dormancy, old seeds or unsuitable temperature	Check the variety and its stratification requirements; review seed freshness and temperature
Seeds become soft or rotten	Excessive moisture or poor drainage	Reduce watering and use a more freely draining medium
Seeds disappear from outdoor pots	Birds, rodents or heavy rain	Use protective mesh and keep containers in a suitable sheltered location
Seeds germinate unevenly	Differences in seed viability or dormancy	Give the remaining seeds more time and review the recommended treatment
Seedlings become tall and weak	Insufficient light	Gradually increase light exposure
Seedlings collapse near the soil surface	Possible damping-off	Improve airflow, avoid waterlogged soil and remove affected seedlings
Roots are damaged during transplanting	Crowded containers or rough handling	Use individual deep containers and transplant before roots become crowded
Seeds germinate inside the refrigerator	Early germination during stratification	Carefully transfer the germinated seed into a small pot without damaging its root

Problem 1: Seeds Have Not Germinated After Four Weeks

Four weeks without visible growth does not automatically mean the seeds are dead.

Possible reasons include:

The seed batch has a dormancy requirement.
The seeds were stored poorly.
The growing medium is too cold.
The seeds were buried too deeply.
The seeds were damaged before sowing.

First identify the variety.

If it is a species whose seeds benefit from cold stratification, review whether the treatment was long enough.

If the seeds were already stratified, check temperature, moisture and seed viability before repeating the process.

Problem 2: Seeds Rot Before Germination

This usually happens when the growing medium remains excessively wet.

Milkweed seeds need moisture, but they also need oxygen.

If the medium stays saturated, the seeds may deteriorate before germination.

Use containers with drainage holes and a light growing medium.

Do not water simply because the surface looks slightly dry if the lower part of the pot is still wet.

Problem 3: Seedlings Become Tall and Floppy

This is commonly associated with insufficient light.

Move the seedlings to a brighter position gradually.

If growing indoors, consider a suitable grow light.

Avoid excessive nitrogen fertilizer because it will not solve a light shortage and may encourage weak, overly soft growth.

Problem 4: Seedlings Fall Over Near the Soil Surface

Young seedlings that collapse close to the growing medium may be affected by damping-off.

The problem is more common when:

Growing medium remains constantly wet.
Air circulation is poor.
Seedlings are crowded.
Humidity remains high.

Remove affected seedlings, improve airflow and adjust watering.

Do not keep the remaining plants covered in a sealed humidity chamber.

Common Mistakes to Avoid When Growing Milkweed from Seed

Even good-quality seeds can fail if the growing conditions are unsuitable.

Avoid these common mistakes:

1. Refrigerating Every Milkweed Variety

Tropical Milkweed usually does not require cold stratification. Identify the species before putting seeds in the refrigerator.

2. Assuming Every Native Milkweed Needs Exactly 30 Days

Cold-treatment requirements vary. Some seed batches need less time, while others may benefit from a longer period.

3. Planting Seeds Too Deeply

A thick layer of growing medium can make it difficult for small seedlings to emerge.

Cover seeds lightly unless the seed supplier gives different instructions.

4. Keeping the Soil Constantly Wet

Moist soil is helpful. Waterlogged soil is not.

Always use containers with drainage holes.

5. Transplanting Crowded Seedlings Roughly

Milkweed roots can be sensitive to disturbance.

Use individual containers whenever possible and handle the root ball gently.

6. Giving Strong Fertilizer Too Early

Young seedlings need suitable light, moisture and healthy roots more than concentrated fertilizer.

Avoid heavy feeding during the early stages.

7. Growing the Wrong Species for Your Climate

A temperate milkweed species may have different seasonal requirements from Tropical Milkweed.

Choose a species that suits your local temperature and growing conditions.

Frequently Asked Questions About Growing Milkweed from Seed

Q1. Can I grow Tropical Milkweed without cold stratification?

Yes. Tropical Milkweed (Asclepias curassavica) can generally be sown directly in warm growing conditions without refrigerator stratification.

Use fresh seeds, a well-draining growing medium and consistent moisture.

Q2. How long does milkweed take to germinate?

Under suitable conditions, many milkweed seeds begin germinating within one to three weeks.

However, germination time varies with species, seed freshness, dormancy and temperature.

Some seeds may take longer.

Q3. Can I soak milkweed seeds instead of cold stratifying them?

A short soak can help rehydrate seeds, particularly when growing Tropical Milkweed.

However, soaking does not reliably replace cold stratification for a seed batch that has a genuine cold-treatment requirement.

Q4. How long can milkweed seeds be stored?

Storage life depends on seed maturity, moisture, temperature and storage conditions.

Keep seeds dry in a labelled paper envelope or suitable seed-storage container in a cool, dark location.

Do not assume that every seed will remain viable for the same number of years. Older seeds should be tested in a small batch before you depend on them for a large planting.

Q5. Can I grow milkweed in pots instead of garden soil?

Yes. Many milkweed varieties can be grown in containers.

Choose a sufficiently deep pot with good drainage and a growing medium suited to the species.

For more detailed instructions, read our companion article:

How to Grow and Care for Milkweed (Asclepias) in Pots: Complete Balcony Guide

Q6. How many milkweed seeds should I plant in one pot?

For seed starting, use one or two seeds per small individual container.

If both seeds germinate, you can keep the stronger seedling or carefully separate them while they are still small, provided their roots are not tangled.

For the final growing container, the number of plants depends on the species, mature size and pot dimensions.

Avoid overcrowding because closely planted milkweed can compete for light, water and root space.

Q7. Can I grow milkweed from seeds collected from mature pods?

Yes, provided the pods and seeds are mature and healthy.

Allow pods to dry and begin opening naturally before collecting the seeds.

Separate the seeds from the white floss and store them in a dry, labelled envelope until planting.

Q8. Can I grow milkweed from seed in North Bengal?

Yes. Tropical Milkweed is a practical option for many gardeners in North Bengal.

Try sowing during a suitable mild period, often from autumn through winter, while avoiding waterlogged conditions.

Provide bright light, good drainage and protection from heavy rain during the seedling stage.

Q9. Why do my milkweed seedlings stop growing after germination?

Slow growth can result from insufficient light, root crowding, waterlogging, temperature stress or poor growing conditions.

Check the roots and growing medium before adding fertilizer.

A seedling with healthy roots and suitable light usually has a better chance of establishing successfully.

Q10. Should I remove the first leaves of milkweed seedlings?

No. The first leaves are the cotyledons, and they help the young seedling during its early development.

Allow them to remain naturally until they begin to wither as the true leaves develop.

Final Thoughts

Growing milkweed from seed is a rewarding way to create a butterfly-friendly balcony, terrace or garden without purchasing multiple mature plants.

The most important decision is choosing the correct germination method for your milkweed variety.

Tropical Milkweed can generally be sown directly in warm conditions, while some temperate North American species benefit from cold, moist stratification. Because seed dormancy varies between species and seed batches, always check the botanical name and use the seed supplier's instructions as your starting point.

Give your seeds a suitable growing medium, consistent moisture, adequate light and enough root space. Transplant young seedlings carefully before their roots become crowded.

With patience and the right growing conditions, a small packet of milkweed seeds can become the beginning of a beautiful pollinator garden.

Have you tried growing milkweed from seed? Did you use refrigerator cold stratification or direct sowing? Share your experience in the comments.

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